The Mongol
people of East Asia have had a large influence in Asia
and the world at large. At the peak of
Mongolian influence, their empire and
geographic distribution encompassed northern China ,
central Asia, Russia ,
Anatolia, and parts of the Middle East . Modern
days Mongolians are located mainly within Mongolia ,
the inner Mongolian region of China ,
southwestern Russia , and
other Chinese provinces including Manchuria and Gansu . Of all these regions, the largest
population of Mongolian people is within the nation of Mongolia . Mongolia has two distinct climatic zones, the Gobi Desert Mongolia is
also prone to "zuds" which are extremely cold and snowy winters that
prevent livestock from grazing and lead to large deaths in Mongolian livestock.
From November through March the averages temperatures over most of the country are
below freezing. Temperatures in April and October are around freezing. More
than half of the country is covered by permafrost. The meteorological
conditions within Mongolia
are unpredictable and highly variable, especially during the summer months. The
country also has high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation in the north averages
20 to 35 centimeters per year, which is the highest. The lowest is in the south
which averages 10 to 20 centimeters per
year, while portions of the south, mainly in the Gobi Desert
Approximately
30% of the population of Mongolia
are nomadic or semi-nomadic. The rest of the population lives in urban centers,
with the capital city of Ulaanbaatar
housing about 40% of the population. The Mongolian economy is based upon agriculture,
herding, and mining. Some of the fauna encountered in Mongolia
includes cattle, wild sheep, goats, camels, horses, snow leopards, and wolves. Comparing
the human population of about 2.6 million people to the 34.8 million cattle,
sheep, goats, camels and horses it is evident to see the huge local population
of animals.
The major
environmental stresses that the Mongolian people have to normally deal with are
the extreme temperatures, mainly cold, that can be found within their
territory. With the country's average temperatures usually being below freezing,
summers are often unpredictable, and having to deal with the occasional zud,
the Mongolian people have had a difficult environment to live in and adapt to.
Adaptations:
Due to the
meteorological factors that afflict the Mongolian people, they have notably
adapted to their environment in two physical ways. The first is developing
short appendages, namely arms and legs, that creates a smaller body area. The
second was the development of smaller bodies, which again served to shrink
overall body area. Both of these adaptations were primarily for increased
tolerance to the cold and higher survivability. With a smaller body area, it is
easier to keep body heat inside the body and there is a smaller area for the
heat to dissipate. Warm blood travels faster throughout the body, helping to
keep core temperatures higher compared to longer limbed or larger humans living
in the same conditions.
Three cultural adaptations to the extreme conditions of Mongolia are a nomadic lifestyle, extensive use of horses, and intensive animal husbandry, or pastoralism. Mongolians developed a nomadic
lifestyle as a reaction to their variable environment. When an unexpected turn
in weather occurred, it would be possible to relocate to a new area with more
favorable conditions. Because of their nomadic lifestyle and the region's
climate, these people also developed intensive animal husbandry. Traditionally,
they received most of their nourishment from the products of their domesticated
animals. Milk was turned into cheese, cream, and butter, while the meat of
killed animals was also consumed. The extensive use of horses promoted greater mobility, allowed them to have a larger migratory territory, and allowed the bands of herders to better defend their livelihood. Traditionally, Mongolians were renown for their horsemanship, especially militarily. These three cultural adaptations are complimentary
of one another. The independence and mobility of the people promoted pastoralism.
The animals would be taken from patchy area of grass to another area. The main
consequence of these three adaptations is the susceptibility of pastoral nomads
to harsh winters. When a zud occurs and their livestock begins to die, their
human herders are put in a situation of grave danger as well.
Language:
The Mongolian people speak Mongolian, which is the principal member of the Mongolian language group, which is a branch of the Altaic family. The official language of Mongolia is based on the Khalkha dialect. The language is written in vertical columns, from the top down. There are two written forms of the language: the traditional Mongolian script and Mongolian Cyrillic. The first was the original written form of the language developed by the Mongolian people and the second was imposed on them by the Soviet Union in the twentieth century. In education, the traditional script is used and taught in schools, while the Cyrillic script is used for everyday things. The original written language is a testament to the Mongolian people's development. They weren't just horse-riding savages who conquered most of the known world during their peak. They were a people, a culture, and served to link the East and the West during their peak. The Cyrillic script is an example of how a stronger people can come and impose their will on others. The Soviet influence on the Mongolian peoples was strong enough that people still use that script even when Mongolia is an autonomous state.
Gender Roles:
Within the Mongolian people, there are two notable genders: male and female. Men are generally seen as the heads of the family, household, and chiefs. Women, however, were held in a positive light compared to their contemporaries among other groups of people. Women, especially women older than a man, were given prestige in Mongolian society. It was seen advantageous for a wife to be older than her husband and traditionally, the wisdom of a man's wife was esteemed. To make an analogy, men were the heads, but women were the brains. When it came to herding, men were often in charge of leading and protecting the herds of livestock with women and children being in charge of animal products, such as milking the animals and making butter or cheese. The roles of men and women were relatively solid, but the lines did blur when it came to Mongolian shamans. Both men and women could become shamans, but women were often seen as superior in the shamanistic arts. Generally, men who cross into female gender roles are looked down upon, but there are no significant repercussions for such. Women, because of the freedoms they enjoy in Mongolian society, aren't particularly sealed into a strict gender role. They are supposed to be counselors to their husbands and do household tasks, but other than that, they are relatively free to partake in similar activities as their male counterparts. Women and men are seen as relatively equal because of the Mongolian value placed on fertility over virginity. Women receive roughly the same wages for male counterparts and enjoy a large influence on Mongolian society. Men's roles included external affairs (military, administration, and trade) and herding animals, hunting, slaughtering animals, and maintaining animal shelters.
Mongolian gender roles were passed down by example. Children aided their mothers as they grew, but when they came of age they'd step into their adult gender role and duties. The protagonist of "The Blessed Curse" would be accepted within Mongolian society because both sexes are relatively equal. The only issues would come to which gender role the protagonist would choose to follow in the larger scheme of the society. As a woman, she would be in charge of child rearing and household duties, but if she were unable to have children, a larger issue would come about. Because Mongolians place a large value on fertility, a woman who is barren could find trouble finding herself a husband. If the protagonist chose to follow a man's gender role, he would not have any issues with larger society. Because of the equality present in Mongolian society, I believe the protagonist would fit in however he or she would choose to.
Subsistence:
Mongolians traditionally rely on their animals for subsistence. This comes in the form of meat and dairy products. Recently, due to agricultural breakthroughs, the Mongolian diet has come to include some vegetables. Due to the environment of Mongolia, agriculture isn't the most viable option because of permafrost and low temperatures. Vegetables are seasonal and are heavily influenced by the weather during planting, growing, and harvesting seasons. Meat and animal by-products are year round as long as the winter isn't too cold or snowy, because too much snow can prevent herds from grazing. Herding animals goes along with nomadism. Men generally tend to the herds, hunt, and slaughter the animals. Women and children are in charge of the animal by-products, namely milk, cheese, butter, and cream. Mongolians generally have deficiencies in vitamins due to the lack of vegetables in their diet. Some traditional Mongolian dishes and items are: fried meat pastries (huushuur), mutton soup with noodles (guriltai shul), and milk tea (suutei tsai).
Economic systems:
In regard to food production, Mongolia's domestic production is used for subsistence. The other animal by-products, such as wool, are the items that are exported or turned into manufactured goods and then sold to other countries. The major specialization of labor consists of industrial workers, especially in regard to the growing mining industry within the country. The currency of Mongolia is the tugrik. From the 1920's to the 1980's, the Soviet Union enforced the collectivization of private herds of animals into larger, collective herds. Since the 1980's, private ownership has again begun to flourish. Mongolia trades minerals, manufactured goods, and animal by-products with their main trading partners: China, the United States, and Canada. Their chief export partner is China. Trading relations with other countries has brought new items that are unavailable in their own country, namely varieties of food and technology. The major issue with trade is that it has driven the industrialization of Mongolia that often brings problems to people who prefer to participate in the traditional economy of Mongolia, mainly herding animals. Men often give up their pastoral lifestyles for the chance of more money doing more dangerous work, especially within the mining industry.
Marriage:
Mongolians are monogamous and the kinship system is patrilineal. Marriage partners, before the 20th century were largely chosen by parents, but now children are free to choose who they wish to marry with little parent influence. Marriages still are usually determined by proximity and social status of the individual. Herders marry neighboring herders and urbanites marry other urbanites. Marriages generally come with a bridal dowry, which traditionally used to be groups of animals. This shows the worth of Mongolian women as sources of life and labor, rather than a form of male-dominated property. Sons, along with their brides, generally established themselves in the camps of their fathers. Now, wedded couples have more of a say in residential location. Homosexuality was legalized in Mongolia in 2002. However, during the Soviet years, homosexuality was illegal. It is unknown how vigorously the anti-homosexuality law was enforced.
Kinship:
The kinship system practiced in Mongolia, traditionally, was patrilineal. The children of a widowed or divorced woman, when she remarried, would be accepted by her new husband and be seen as his own. The importance of children was for the labor they could provide for their family, so fertility was the important value in a women, rather than her virginity. Because of the ability of a women to be a source of children and labor, they were highly valued in Mongolian society. The patrilinealism of Mongolia reflects that a man controls the wealth and power of his household, but a woman is by no means merely another possession. She was a source of wisdom and counsel in the marriage, with men being pressured by Mongolian society to listen to their wives and heed their counsel. Men hold the most authority within the family and Mongolian society. Inheritance is carried on through the male line and traditionally the youngest son would inherit the largest part of his father's wealth.
Social Organization:
Traditional Mongolian society was structured and segmented. The overall society was organized into a hierarchy of families, clans, tribes, and confederations. The social classes were composed of nobles, herders, artisans, and slaves. There was the possibility of social mobility in this system and nobles and commoners had opportunities for both upward and downward social mobility. In modern Mongolian society, social classes are structured by economic status, with social mobility available, but not as common due to an increasing disparity between rich and poor.
Political Structure:
The Mongolian political system traditionally was composed of various chiefs who governed their own people and subjugated other chiefdoms. The modern Mongolian state has one unicameral legislative parliament: the State Great Hural, which is composed of 76 elected members. Mongolia also has a president, who serves as the head of state, and a prime minister, who serves as the head of government. The president is elected by a popular vote and the prime minister is elected from the parliament, whom is generally the leader of the majority party. Local government officials are elected by the public in the provincial and district levels. Power is transferred by popular consent through elections. The State Great Hural is in charge of creating legislation and the laws are enforced by the National Police Agency of Mongolia. They use fines, imprisonment, deportation from Mongolia, and expulsion from native groups as punishments for breaking the law.
The Role of Violence:
One noticeable display of violence within the Mongolian people is the domestic violence of men against women. According to studies conducted over the years, domestic violence is becoming more violent. Another issue is the domestic violence of men on children. The Mongolian media has done various attempts to bring these issues to light, but the Mongolian people see it as a family issue or no issue at all. Studies show that this violence has been greatly influenced by alcohol abuse and the economic situation in Mongolia. Because of the rapid industrialization of the country and the new free market economy, many families are becoming impoverished and this is putting more stress on the household unit. Men, influenced by the stress and lack of means to support their families, become violent with their wives and children. Women are often afraid to prosecute men because they would lose their own livelihood and household as their husband sits in a detention center. The society at large sees it as as a neutral or non-issue. The afflicted parties absolutely see it as a plague to Mongolian society, but the society at large doesn't have any qualms with domestic violence, at least at the social level.
Religion:
The main religion of the Mongolian people is Lamaism, which is a form of Buddhism. The religion is more philosophical than theological. It is neither monotheistic or polytheistic, because it is more concerned with how people live their lives and how that can affect their next life as they get reincarnated (or reach Nirvana and escape the cycle of reincarnation). Buddhism is characterized by meditation and their treatment of other. Good deeds done solely for the betterment of others serve to better their karma, which in turn brings them closer to Nirvana or a better state of existence when they become reincarnated. Families also promoted Buddhism by sending one of their sons to a temple to become a lama, which served to expand and strengthen Buddhism within Mongolia. Buddhism is deeply influential to the culture, shown by its strong resurgence after Soviet influence. Under socialism, Buddhism was strongly persecuted and a large amount of Buddhist temples were destroyed.
Art:
The artwork of the Mongolian people was heavily influenced by their nomadic heritage. Sculptures and paintings were mainly localized to temples while utensils, saddles, horse blankets, and storage chests were highly decorative. The artwork in the temples were of a religious theme and served to supplement the religious activities going on in the temples. The functional items, such as saddles, were decorated to show the value placed on them. Music was broken up into folk music and professional music. Both served as methods of entertainment. Of the folk instruments, the most important was the horse-head fiddle, which men were expected to be able to play. Other folk instruments included transverse and vertical flutes and the tovshuur and shudraga (two banjo-like instruments). Both amateur and professional theater and music groups are supported within Mongolia. The Mongolian government subsidizes such groups to perform throughout the country. Performances include operas, ballets, plays, folk music and dancing, and circuses. The religious artwork of the Mongolian people are generally the sculptures and paintings within religious temples. These include depictions of the Buddha in sculpted form and paintings on wool or silk.
Conclusion:
Mongolia has been highly affected by China and Russia. They obtained many technological advances from both countries, economic support, and a new governmental system (from Russia). However, the socialist state created in Mongolia with Russia's influence also proved to be harmful to the culture. Buddhism was highly persecuted, government corruption was rampant, and the traditional livelihood of Mongolians was transformed into a public state-controlled system (the collecting of private herds into larger public ones). With the onset of modernization, globalization, and industrialization, many traditional Mongolian practices are in danger. In an industrial economy, there is hardly any room for pastoral nomadism. The stresses of impoverishment due to the new economic system are also putting a toll on family relationships, notably through the rising amount of male domestic violence on women and children. The cultural identity is not in necessary danger of being lost, but aspects are indeed threatened. Traditionally, the Mongol horde was a devastating Medieval juggernaut. Genghis Khan was able to truly unite the Asian East and European West, which could be seen as the beginning of the modern world. Sadly, Mongolia in the twenty-first century only has a small fraction of the influence and power it wielded at its peak. The growing Mongolian influence on the world economy is their exportation of minerals. The Mongolian mineral trade will be a driving factor to economies all around the world and allow for Mongolia to reap the economic benefits of supplying the rest of the world with the metals and coal they need for their pre-industrial, industrial, or post-industrial societies.
I also studied the Mongols and was fascinated by how much more I learned reading your ethnography. I had a lot of difficulty tracking down a physical adaptation they had to make, and wish I had known about the smaller body size. It makes complete sense. Another area I didn't know about was the percentages of where the Mongols lived. I didn't realize only 30% were nomadic. Other than that we shared very similar information. It's always nice to see a second perspective of the same culture! Great ethnography, it cleared many things up for me.
ReplyDeleteGreat post. You had some excellent insights into the culture, particularly with regard to the gender roles. Good clear discussion.
ReplyDeleteOne thing to keep in mind is that the assignment addressed the characteristics of the Mongol culture. A couple of times, you wandered off into discussions of the Mongol *nation*. They are related and interact, but really do different entities. This was the case in your discussion of economics and politics (you weren't the only student to make this leap).
Other than that caution, very well done.